Jump to navigation Skip to Content. The contamination of bulk milk with antibiotic residues has very serious implications for consumers, processors and producers. It is as simple as that. For processors, the quality of the milk supplied directly influences the quality of the end product.
As the manufacturing of dairy products such as cheese and yoghurt is dependent on bacterial activity, the presence of any inhibitory substances will interfere with this process and may cause spoilage. In the market place, manufacturers must consistently maintain product quality to maintain contracts and secure new markets.
Correlation analysis of heat stability of veterinary antibiotics by structural degradation, changes in antimicrobial activity and genotoxicity. Vet Med-Czech. Quantification of antibiotic residues and determination of antimicrobial resistance profiles of microorganisms isolated from bovine milk in Lebanon.
Simultaneous determination of amoxicillin and prednisolone in bovine milk using ultra-high performance liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry. J Chromatogr B. A simple, fast and cheap non-SPE screening method for antibacterial residue analysis in milk and liver using liquid chromatography—tandem mass spectrometry. Residues investigation of fluoroquinolones and sulfonamides and their metabolites in bovine milk by quantification and confirmation using ultra-performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry.
Antimicrobial residues in foods of animal origin in Africa: public health risks. Inhibitory substances in raw milk. J Appl Microbiology. Multiresidue screening of milk withheld for sale at dairy farms in central New York State. Food Anal Methods. Comparison of three microbial screening methods for antibiotics using routine monitoring samples.
J Chromatogr. Reybroeck W. Screening for residues of antibiotics and chemotherapeutics in milk and honey. Doctorat dessertation: Faculteit Diergeneeskunde Universiteit Gent; Sidak Z. Rectangular confidence regions for the means of multivariate normal distributions. J Am Stat Assoc. Suhren G, Luitz M.
Evaluation of microbial inhibitor tests with indicator in micro-titer plates by photometric measurements. CAS Google Scholar. Determination of five macrolide antibiotic residues in raw milk using liquid chromatography-electrospray ionization tandem mass spectrometry. J Agric Food Chem. Biodiversity of lactic acid bacteria in Romanian dairy products. Syst Appl Microbiol. Zoubeidi M, Gharabi D.
Revue Ecologie-Environnement 9. An evaluation of different microbial and rapid tests for determining inhibitors in milk. Download references. The authors are thankful to those farmers who kindly provided milk samples and cows treatment data.
The authors are very grateful for the financial support of the Algerian Ministry of the Superior Education and Scientific Research and University of Guelma for the training.
WIV Brussels, Belgium. Special acknowledgments goes to Radhia Layada for the considerable work on refining the language of the manuscript. As well as, appreciations are delivered to Mr. SL and DEB conceived the study. SL performed the collection of the samples, al practical work, the interpretation of the results, and drafted the manuscript with supervision of MA. WC performed the statistical analysis of all the results. All authors took parts in drafting the manuscript.
All authors read and approved the final manuscript. You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar. Reprints and Permissions. Layada, S. Assessment of antibiotic residues in commercial and farm milk collected in the region of Guelma Algeria. FoodContamination 3, 19 Download citation.
Received : 08 December Accepted : 19 October Published : 28 October Anyone you share the following link with will be able to read this content:. Sorry, a shareable link is not currently available for this article. Provided by the Springer Nature SharedIt content-sharing initiative.
Skip to main content. Search all BMC articles Search. Download PDF. Abstract Background In an attempt to enhance the quality and quantity of food production especially milk and in order to prevent, or treat,animal diseases, the use of antibiotics in Algeria follows an increasing trend. Conclusion The comparison of both methods showed that Delvotest SP-NT is less trustworthy due to number of false negative results. Background Antibiotics are widely used in livestock production for many purposes, such as: animal disease treatment therapeutic application , animal disease prevention prophylactic application , and feed efficiency as growing promoters Jank et al.
Extraction optimization The extraction procedure was based on an existent method for screening of antibiotics in meat. Table 1 Comparative overview of four extraction methods parameters Full size table.
Table 2 All parameters used for the comparison between four methods M1, M2, M3 and M4 and the final selection of the test suitable method Full size table. Table 3 Mass spectrometry parameters used for the screening of antibiotic residues in milk Full size table.
Delvotest Out of samples analyzed in this study 39 were positive forming Full size image. Discussion Monitoring large numbers of milk samples for the presence of residues in excess of the levels laid down under community legislation requires low cost screening methods.
Article Google Scholar Boultif L. The results are shown in Figure 1. Antibiotic residue in milk was first detected in 60s [ 20 ] followed by a swelling trend with a stiff increase in detection after [ 21 — ] The related published literatures from to is 81 The results are shown in Figure 2. Among the countries of the world, the highest no. It is observed that more research studies on detection of antibiotic residue were performed at the developed countries rather than developing countries.
Most of the research studies in related field have been performed in Europe, Among the Asian countries, China is at the top in ranking, The production rate, availability of animal and milk, demand, and amount of antibiotic usage might have been considered as important phenomena for selecting bovine milk in most of the cases over others.
The majority of the articles, Results and references are shown in Table 2. Milk has been found to be categorized as raw or fresh and spiked, raw and non-spiked, pasteurized, unpasteurized, whole milk, skimmed mild, or semi-skimmed milk and various products of milk for detecting the antibiotic residues and innovating the detecting techniques. A total of no. A variable no. The highest number of works, The results are shown in Table 3. A variable number of works were found differentiating the classes of antibiotics during their detection by applying various methods, especially in chromatographic technique to evaluate and establish their respective detection accuracy.
In descending order, 72 Diversified techniques have been applied for detection of ARs in milk, which are classified broadly as chromatographic, immunological, microbiological, and miscellaneous. The results are shown in Figure 3. The chromatographic technique is increasingly being used over others, especially the rate is much higher in recent times, due to higher sensitivity and specificity, higher quantification capability.
On the other hand, various immunological and microbiological techniques can be applied at a cheaper rate, rapidly with lesser efficiency, though the quantification and detection is not satisfactory.
Acetonitrile has been used in most of the cases, 77 The results are shown in Figure 4. In most of the cases two or more than two chemicals have been used for extraction.
Variable concentrations of the chemicals were used in different research studies. The chemicals have been selected based on their chemical nature for easy extraction, price, availability, specificity, type of column used, and nature of antibiotics being extracted out. In mobile phase, Acetonitrile and formic acid combination for chromatographic separation has been used in most of the cases.
Acetonitrile still belongs to the top in ranking, 76 The results are shown in Figure 5. Therapeutical uses of antibiotics: Vital cause of presence of ARs in milk is the indiscriminate usage of antibiotics in therapy of infectious diseases, such as clinical mastitis and viral diseases [ 10 ]. Antibiotics as prophylactics: Sometimes, antibiotics are used in therapy of dry cow [ 10 , ] and management of post-surgical risk, which are also responsible for AR in milk [ 10 ]. Antibiotics in miscellaneous purposes: There may have direct or indirect pathways of contaminating milk by ARs, when used during processing and preservation of milk and related dairy products [ 10 ].
If the supplied instructions in the label are not followed accordingly, residues of antibiotics may be found in milk. When an antibiotic is approved only for humans become used injudiciously in animals, or usage in different species where it is not approved, or during a condition where it is not approved, or usage beyond the appropriate concentration, may be referred as extra-label use [ ].
Lack of maintenance of proper withdrawal time: Without proper maintenance of withdrawal time of antibiotics in milking animal, AR appears in milk at higher concentration [ 12 ]. Limited detection facilities of ARs and improper monitoring system of residues due to the crisis of strong regulatory organization, may be considered as important phenomena in this issue for developing countries [ 12 ]. Normal metabolic process of antibiotics is hampered in diseased animals, which can cause antibiotics to remain stored for a longer period of time and higher amount in tissues, ultimately impose a higher risk of residues [ 16 ].
Lack of awareness of farmers about residual effects of AR from milk in human health [ 16 ]. Improper education of farmers [ 16 ]. Inadequate literatures supplied by manufacturers [ 10 ]. Improper cleaning of antibiotics contaminated equipment after using in mixing or administering process. Improper disposal of empty containers of antibiotics in the farm premises which can contaminate feeds of animals. Animals may lick those or even get exposed through contaminated feeds accidentally [ ].
Insufficient identification of treated cows [ ]. Miscellaneous factors those influence the presence of AR in milk [ ]:. Milk yield AR in milk is inversely related with milk yield [ ]. Antibiotic resistance: Presence of low level of antibiotic residues in milk and other dairy products causes microorganisms to be resistant against antibiotics.
The resistant microbs may be transmitted among the individuals via direct contact or indirectly by exchange of resistant genes in the environment [ 16 ].
Allergic reactions: Residues of various antibiotics are associated with multiple types of allergic reactions, including serum sickness and anaphylaxis, especially in case of penicillins [ 16 ].
Carcinogenicity: Residues of antibiotics possess potential carcinogenic impacts by interacting with cellular elements, such as DNA and RNA [ 16 ]. Mutagenicity: Mutagenic effect is another dangerous impact of ARs, which can cause mutation of DNA molecule or damage of chromosomes [ 66 ] Infertility of human being may results from this mutation [ 16 ].
Teratogenicity: Various congenital anomalies may be seen in new born child due to long term exposure of ARs during gestation period [ 16 ]. Disturbances in the normal intestinal environment: Normal habitant of the intestine coexists with others and colonizes to prevent the pathogenic microbs from producing diseases.
ARs in milk resulting from usage of broad-spectrum antibiotics may kill a wide range of microflora in the intestine including the non-pathogenic organisms, which can make the disease causing microorganisms more prominent and disrupt the normal intestinal environment [ 16 ].
Effects in dairy industry: Existence of ARs in milk, even in very low concentration is of great concern in dairy industries. The residues of antibiotics can interfere with the fermentation process during production of cheese and yogurt by inhibiting the starter cultures [ 16 ].
There are two basic approaches to control ARs in milk: a Development of highly sensitive detection tools to avoid the false negative results; b Usage of appropriate methods for confirmation and quantification of ARs, where possibility of false positive outcome will be minimum [ ]Simple, rapid, sensitive, specific, and economic procedures should be developed to analyze ARs in milk, followed by discarding if exceeds the MRL [ 16 ]. The level or concentration of ARs in milk should be under regular basis monitoring and surveillance policies nationwide [ 10 ].
Following measures can be taken to inactivate some of the antibiotics: a Penicillin becomes inactivates following refrigeration. Development of public awareness through arrangement of some effective activities in this field, facilitated by the expert personnel or organizations [ 10 ].
Indiscriminate uses of VAs should be strictly prohibited [ 10 ]. Herbal sources of medicines may be taken in consideration as an alternative option for treating diseases [ 10 ]. Paying attention to proper withdrawal times of antibiotics for milking cows [ 10 ].
Label instructions should be read prior to purchasing of antibiotics to understand the consequences of usage [ 16 ]. Drugs used for lactating and non-lactating animals should not be intermixed, rather storing those in separate places [ 16 ].
Maintaining the good hygienic management practices during antibiotic administration [ 16 ]. Proper biosecurity should be maintained in dairy farms to avoid infections. Highest priority should be given in maintaining better health quality of dairy animals, where usage of antibiotics can be avoided in large extent [ 16 ].
Marking of antibiotics treated cows for easy identification, which will help the milkers to recognize them and withheld milk from marketing up to appropriate withdrawal time [ 16 ].
Data regarding treatment of milking cows should be preserved cautiously in written form, where date and cause of treatment, name and dosage of drugs used, withdrawal time must be included [ 16 ]. Antibiotics treated cows should be separated from the rest ones and milking lastly to minimize the risk of ARs contamination [ 16 ].
Milk should be withdrawn and discarded from all of the quarters following intra-mammary infusion of antibiotics, as infused drug can be disseminated through circulation easily [ 16 ]. The dairy producers should be made competent about maintaining proper quality of milk as well as its assurance [ 16 ]. Presently, existence of ARs in milk is one of the burning issues, having great public health interest in many perspectives. According to the research studies, the causal factors of ARs in milk are not very few.
A number of causes are also responsible for presence of antibiotic residues in milk. Detection and quantification of residues precisely in cost effective way within the shortest possible time is always a challenge. Few techniques haven been developed recently to detect residues and research studies are ongoing in this field for reaching the feasibilities.
From the analysis of literatures in this review, chromatographic technique has been found to be the most sensitive, specific, reliable, and feasible for this modern era.
Hence, various modifications in chromatographic methods are still being applied and need to perform comprehensive research works in future to maximize the feasibilities. The rising trends of work in this regard surely denote the alarmingly increasing usage of antibiotic in livestock and threat of residues as well and increasing concern accordingly. Therefore, the appropriate measures should be implemented to cease the ARs in milk. SS was involved in designing the study, interpretation of data, and drafting the write up of article.
JF contributed in manuscript preparation. MHS took part in preparing and critical checking of this manuscript.
National Center for Biotechnology Information , U. J Adv Vet Anim Res. Published online Jul Author information Article notes Copyright and License information Disclaimer. Correspondence Mahmudul Hasan Sikder, Email: db. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution-Noncommercial-Share Alike 4.
This article has been cited by other articles in PMC. Abstract Now-a-days, various types of antibiotics are being used worldwide in veterinary sector indiscriminately for promotion of growth and treatment of the livestock.
Keywords: Antibiotic residues, dairy animals, maximum residue limit, milk samples, veterinary antibiotics, withdrawal time. Antibiotic residue AR The administered parent antibiotics or their metabolites become deposited in animal tissues and matrix intended to be used for human consumption, where the concentration is beyond the permitted level for a certain period of time, known as antibiotics residues [ 10 ].
Maximum residue limit MRL Maximum level or concentration of a drug or chemical thought to be non-hazardous and permitted by the regulatory bodies in or on food or feed intended to be used for animal or human consumption at a specified point of time, known as MRL. Withdrawal time This term is often used more broadly to describe the time needed after drug administration to any food animal where below a determined MRL may be found in marketed meats, eggs, organs, or other edible products.
Data extraction and analysis Various data were collected from the literatures and organized in Microsoft excel worksheet on the basis of splitting those into six decades i. Results and discussion Publications In the preliminary step of selection, we found a total of 1, articles which could meet up the area of interest. Open in a separate window.
Figure 1. Selection and exclusion criteria for scientific publications on antibiotic residues in milk. Antibiotic residue in milk: timeline analysis Antibiotic residue in milk was first detected in 60s [ 20 ] followed by a swelling trend with a stiff increase in detection after [ 21 — ] The related published literatures from to is 81 Figure 2.
Timeline analysis of published literatures on antibiotic residue detection in milk. Country-wise analysis Among the countries of the world, the highest no. Table 1. Continent and country-wise distribution of researches on detection of antibiotic residue in milk. Continent-wise analysis Most of the research studies in related field have been performed in Europe, Types of samples used for detection The highest no. Table 2. Types of samples and animals used for detection of antibiotic residues in milk.
Such milk poses a health risk to consumers and prevents bacteria from processing the milk to form cheese and yogurt. However, treated cows still need to be milked and occasionally this milk is mixed by mistake with that of healthy cows, thereby, contaminating the entire batch.
When the tanker collects the milk from the farmer it is mixed with milk from several other herds, thereby contaminating the entire load. Moreover, tests for antibiotics residues are not usually performed until the milk tanker arrives at the dairy.
If the contents are contaminated by milk from even a single treated cow, the whole load must be discarded, and the tanker sent for special cleaning, causing delays in the next milk collection.
Tests conducted on the farm The milk quality antibiotics sensor MILQAS project addressed this challenge, developing a working prototype for a handheld measuring device that monitors the presence of antibiotics. The fine and costs for contaminating milk with antibiotics are in the region of EUR 15 Lost milk also represents a considerable waste of energy and the associated greenhouse gas emissions also affect the environment.
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