The primitive cyanobacterial cell inside the eukaryote is theorized to have eventually become the plastid chloroplast that is known today. The chloroplast and the cyanobacterial cell seem to share common features, i. Following the primary endosymbiosis, secondary and tertiary endosymbiotic events ensued, and these are believed to have led to later lineages of photosynthetic eukaryotes.
Cyanobacteria are found in aquatic habitats and moist soil. They can also cause algal blooms in aquatic environments, especially those that are stagnant, calm or slowly flowing. The algal bloom by cyanobacteria appears like a scum that is blue-green in colour.
It can contain cyanotoxins toxins produced by cyanobacteria that can cause serious illness or kill when consumed in certain concentrations. It can cause shellfish poisoning and fish kill. Cyanobacterial blooms are intensified by anthropogenic eutrophication of aquatic habitats. Rising temperatures, vertical stratification, increased CO 2 in the atmosphere, and high concentration of phosphorus can cause cyanobacterial population to grow exponentially.
Cyanotoxins consist of neurotoxins, hepatotoxins, cytotoxins, and endotoxins that can cause respiratory failure to animals that ingest them through contaminated water. In terrestrial habitats, such as a damp soil, cyanobacteria help stabilize soil. Their growth prevents erosion. They help retain water. For instance, Microcoleus vaginatus is a cyanobacterium that produces a polysaccharide sheath that binds soil particles and helps retain water.
Cyanobacteria are key players in the oxygen cycle. Prochlorococcus sp. Some cyanobacteria can become heterotrophs. Some heterorophic parasitic cyanobacteria can cause disease to their invertebrate host, such as black band disease.
This tutorial elaborates on how the nervous system works, particularly at the tissue level of the brain. There are three.. Adaptation, in biology and ecology, refers to the process or trait through which organisms or the populations in a habit.. Osmoregulation is the regulation of water concentrations in the bloodstream, effectively controlling the amount of water.. There are more species of insects than any other species combined. This surely illustrates that insects have the selecti..
Obtaining air outside an aquatic environment required species to acquire suitable adaptations, and this was the case of.. Since the biosynthesis efficiency for PHB in cyanobacteria is quite low therefore, in order to increase the production, PHB biosynthetic gene is introduced from bacterium Ralstonia eutropha into Synechococcus along with nitrogen starvation and acetate supplementation condition and production reached upto The metabolite production which is being enhanced by engineering the cyanobacteria has been discussed in the following section.
The high amount of metabolite production from cyanobacteria has compelled the scientists to engineer these organisms in order to obtain maximum production. Several metabolites like alcohols, fatty metabolites fatty acid, fatty alcohol, and fatty hydrocarbon , hydrocarbon ethylene , carbohydrates mannitol, lactate, and Glucosylglycerol , carboxylic acid, and terpenes obtained from cyanobacteria are applicable at commercial level and therefore to enhance their production, cyanobacteria and algae are being engineered reviewed by Oliver et al.
Likely, engineered Synechococcus elongatus PCC has 1. Similar to this, Hirokawa et al. PCC Luan et al. The production of ethylene, an important component of polymers has been enhanced by engineering the Synechococcus elongatus PCC and Synechocystis sp. As the need of biofuel production is increasing, therefore, to optimize free fatty acids production in Synechococcus elongatus PCC and Synechocystis sp. PCC , the alternative carbon sinks were removed as well as flux was increased for fatty acid biosynthesis, which gave the productivity of 0.
The production of fatty alcohol and fatty hydrocarbons has also been improved by employing the same engineering process. Similar to fatty acids, the production of carbohydrates, carboxylic acids, and terpenes obtained from cyanobacteria has been incresaed using the engineering process, which has been discussed in detail in review by Oliver et al. Regarding the genetic manipulation in the case of algae, some experiments have been performed with Chlamydomonas reinhardtii but no successful results have been obtained and this engineering process needs to be rectified in the case of algae.
As cyanobacteria and algae are a renewable source of drop-in fuels, feeds, fertilizers, nutritional oils, and pharmaceuticals. They can also provide waste water treatment and other remediation services and many more new applications are continuously being discovered. All these applications have to be commercialized and algal bioprocessing has been put forward as a flagship technology for driving the products or other valuable chemicals that are obtained from cyanobacteria and algae.
The commercialization programme is being performed for harnessing the unequaled potential of algae to provide us with sustainable products, drive economic growth, and reduce greenhouse gas emissions.
Several companies like solazyme, algenol, terra biologics etc. Outline of some companies has been addressed in the following paragraphs. The ethanol obtained from patented strain is 20 times more than that of corn ethanol. The production is carried out in fully closed and sealed photo bioreactors and the waste algae are converted to diesel, jet fuel, and gasoline using hydrothermal liquefaction. Global Algae Innovations is another company which uses low cost algae production technologies.
The company uses suite of algae grown in open ponds with novel, low-cost production technology in every process step. As a result, economical, sustainable production of protein and biofuel are now within reach.
It also leverages the production of other algae markets such as functional foods, nutraceuticals, pigments, and aquaculture. TerraVia Holdings formerly Solazyme is also a Biotechnology company which uses the copyrighted technology of converting low-cost plant-based sugars into high-value oils. This company shifted its focus from bio-fules to sustainable food oils and personal care products in March, However, commercialization processes have some challenges that have been discussed in detail in review by Griffiths et al.
The challenges to be addressed have been briefly outlined below:. Increasing productivity in large-scale outdoor microalgal culture. Minimizing contamination by predators and other algal species. Mitigating temperature changes and water loss due to evaporation.
Optimizing supply of light and CO 2. Developing cheap and efficient reactor designs. Developing cost and energy-efficient methods of harvesting dilute suspensions of small microalgal cells. Decreasing the overall energy and cost requirements, particularly for pumping, gas transfer, mixing, harvesting, and dewatering.
Improving resource utilization and productivity through a biorefinery approach. Producing valuable co-products. Decreasing environmental footprint through recycling of water, energy, and nutrients. Since the beginning of the civilization, biologically active compounds, which are obtained from diverse range of algae and cyanobacteria have been widely explored. Cyanobacteria and algae are rich sources of various compounds including pigments, lectins, fibers, halogenated compounds, steroids, antioxidants, vitamins, polyketides, polysaccharides, MAAs, proteins, and essential lipids.
Therefore, they are widely used in different countries due to their multifunctional applications in nutraceuticals as well as in pharmaceuticals. Cyanobacterial and algal secondary metabolites possess several pharmaceutical applications such as antiviral, anticancer, and antimicrobial activities. Wide use of biocides has emerged as eco-friendly tactic as they are easily degradable in nature as compared to other synthetic pesticides.
Undoubtedly, in the past few decades, our understanding in the field of algal metabolites has significantly improved, but there are still many steps we have to reach. We are entering in the blooming era of cyanobacteria and algae, our stage is set and it is the time, we uncover the enigma of cyanobacterial and algal metabolites.
Definitely, by uncovering novel functions of algal secondary metabolites a new scenario will appear with specific reflection to humanity. This review has emphasized that cyanobacteria and algae are promising sources of structurally diverse biologically active compounds such as terpenes, alkaloids, steroids, polysaccharides, lipids, and polyphenolics which have several utilities in various industries.
Nevertheless, further investigations are required for compiling secondary metabolites profile of cyanobacteria and algae in order to make them more useful for human welfare. There is a need to find out how we can convert the present days technology into a green technology for exploiting these cyanobacteria and algae. We should also think upon the strategy for disseminating this commercialization at small scale as well as at large scale.
There is a need to find out answer to these questions like whether the production rate of metabolites is sufficient to meet out the demands in comparison to plants? Whether these metabolites could have some more beneficiary roles? Future work will no doubt reveal novel functions for secondary metabolites and the future research in this area will be very promising. The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.
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